The Middle Ages (fifth to fifteenth centuries AD) are often called the Dark Ages, but in fact they were a time of discovery and invention, a time of important technological breakthroughs, and a time when the West adopted advances from the East.

In the basic version, the plow plows the ground, making a furrow with a special knife-ploughshare, and the depth of the blade is regulated by the weight of the plow, which the tiller easily lifts with his hands. Such a light plow was quite fragile, so it turned out to be unsuitable for the hard soil of northern Europe.

The new plow had wheels, which allowed it to be significantly heavier, and the blade to be larger and made of metal. Heavy plows allowed more food to be produced, which caused an increase in population around 600 AD.

Tidal mills are a special type of water mill that uses the energy of tides. A dam with a sluice is erected in the path of a decent wave, or a man-made reservoir is used in the estuary of the river. When the tide comes in, water enters the millpond through special gates, and the gates automatically close when the tide begins to subside.

When the water level is sufficient, the trapped water begins to be released little by little, and it rotates the water wheel. The earliest known tide mills date back to 787. First of all, this is the mill of Nendrum Monastery on the island of Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland. Its millstones are 830 millimeters in diameter, and the horizontal wheel can create a pressure of 7/8 GPC at its peak. The remains of an older mill, presumably built in 619, have also been found.

Since the hourglass is one of the important instruments for keeping time at sea, it was assumed that it had been in use since around the 11th century, when it could have supplemented the magnetic compass and thus aided navigation. However, no visual evidence of their existence is found until the 14th century, when hourglasses appear in paintings by Ambrosio Lorenzetti in 1328. The earlier written evidence is precisely the ship's logs. And since the 15th century, hourglasses have been used very widely - at sea, in church, in manufacturing and even in cooking.

It was the first reliable, reusable and accurate method of measuring time. During Ferdinand Magellan's voyage around the world, his fleet relied on 18 hourglasses per ship. There was a special position for the person who turned over the hourglass and measured the time for the logbook. Noon was a very important time to check the accuracy of navigation, since it did not depend on the hourglass, but only on the time the sun rose to its zenith.

The oldest known blast furnaces in the West were built at Dürstel in Switzerland, in Markisch, Sauerland, Germany, and at Laputana in Sweden, where the blast furnace complex was in active use between 1150 and 1350. At Noraskog in the Swedish county of Järnboz, the remains of blast furnaces have been found that were built even earlier, perhaps around 1100.

The technology was described in detail in the General Rules of the Cistercian monks, including the design of the furnace. The Cistercians were known to be very good metallurgists. According to Jane Gimpel, they had high level industrial technologies: “Each monastery had a kind of factory, often larger in area than the monastery church, and some mechanisms were driven by water power.” Iron ore was given to the monks as donations, and they smelted the iron themselves, so there was often a surplus left over for sale. The Cistercians were the main producers of iron in Champagne, France, from the mid-13th to the 17th centuries, and they used the phosphate-rich slag from the furnaces as fertilizer.

The first evidence of true distillation comes from Babylon and dates back to around the fourth millennium BC. Special closed clay pots were used to produce small amounts of pure alcohol, which was then used in perfumes. This did not play a big role in history. Distillation through freezing was known as the "Mongol" method and was used in Central Asia from the 7th century AD.

The method involved freezing the alcohol and then extracting the frozen water crystals. The advent of a still with a cooling element, which made it possible to purify alcohol without freezing, was the merit of Muslim alchemists in the 8th or 9th century AD. In particular, Geber (Khabir ibn Hayyan, 721-815) invented the alembic; he found that heated wine in his still turned into flammable vapors, which he described as not very practical, but very important for science.

In 1268, Roger Bacon made the earliest recorded comment on the use of lenses for optical purposes, but magnifying lenses inserted into frames were used for reading at that time in both Europe and China, which still gives rise to debate whether the West learned is it an invention of the East, or vice versa. In Europe, the first glasses appeared in Italy, their introduction is attributed to Alessandro di Spina in Florence.

The first portrait to include glasses is Tommaso da Modena's portrait of Hugh Provence, painted in 1352. In 1480, Domenico Giraldaio, painting Saint Jerome, depicted him at his desk with glasses hanging from him. As a result, Saint Jerome became the patron saint of spectacle creators. The earliest glasses had convex lenses for farsighted people. Concave lenses for people suffering from myopia or nearsightedness were first seen in Raphael's 1517 portrait of Pope Leo X.

The origin of the idea of ​​a mechanical watch as such is unknown; the first such devices could have been invented and used in monasteries to accurately calculate the time when monks should be called to service by ringing bells.

The first mechanical clocks that are known for sure were large, with a heavy movement that was housed in a tower, and are now called tower clocks. This clock only had an hour hand. The oldest surviving mechanical clock is in England, at Salisbury Cathedral, created in 1386. The clock installed in Rouen, France, in 1389 is still running, and is the one shown in the photo. And the clock designed for the cathedral in Wales is now kept in the Science Museum in London.

The spinning wheel was supposedly invented in India, although its exact origins are unknown. The spinning wheel came to Europe through the Middle East.
It replaced the hand spinning wheel of the past, where thread was drawn from a mass of tow by hand, and then the threads were twisted together and the resulting single thread was wound onto a spindle.

This process was mechanized by placing the spindle horizontally so that it could be turned by a large hand-powered wheel.
The tow with the mass of future yarn was held in the left hand, and the wheel slowly rotated with the right. Pulling the fiber at an angle to the wheel axis led to the desired result.

In the 14th century, the growth of maritime trade and the discovery that plague was introduced by ships returning from the Levant led to the introduction of quarantine in Venice. Quarantine consisted in the fact that arriving ships were isolated for a certain period until the first signs of illness, if any.

Initially, this period was 30 days and was called trentina, but then it was extended to 40 days, that is, until quarantine. The choice of such a period of time was symbolic - this is how long Christ and Moses spent in solitude in the desert. In 1423, Venice opened its first lazaretto, a quarantine station on an island near the city. This was done to prevent the spread of plague with people and goods.

The Venetian system became an example for other European countries, as well as the basis for widespread quarantine control for several centuries.

Printing, like paper, first appeared in China, but Europe was the first to invent mechanized printing. The earliest mention of such a machine is in a lawsuit in Strasbourg in 1439, it is known that the printing press was designed by Johannes Gutenberg and his comrades. (some scanty evidence speaks in favor of the primacy in printing of a certain Lawrence Janson Coster).

The prototype for the medieval printing press was a paper press, and it, in turn, was a grape and olive press, common in the Mediterranean. A heavy wooden screw was turned with a long lever; required pressure using a wooden roller weight. In this version, the wooden press lasted for about 300 years, producing, with minor variations, 250 pages of single-sided printing per hour.

Thanks to this encyclopedia, my ideas about Europeans, about the same Mongols and about other peoples have changed greatly. I used to think that Batu, who conquered Rus', was the main Mongol khan, but in fact, it turns out that the main Great Khan was his elder brother Kublai. The Mongolian capital at that time was located in Beijing, and Kublai's advisor was none other than the famous traveler Marco Polo, whom many know. But only now have I finally united all three heroes together - they lived in the same, thirteenth century! And I also used to think that the Mongols were steppe nomads, horsemen, but it turns out they knew how to sail ships on the sea and attacked Japan. The Japanese word "kamikaze" from the World War II era means "divine wind", the storm that drove Kublai Kublai's Mongol ships off Japanese shores. And during the war, this was the name given to Japanese suicide pilots.

About medieval Africa and South America I actually read something for the first time in my life and here. And now I know what the knotted letter looked like, and I can say without hesitation: “Inca Sichi Roka.” Or: “Sundiata Keita.” It sounds a little funny and mysterious, like some kind of spell, right? Although these are simply the names of the Inca leader and ruler of the African state of Mali. This Sundiata Keita established equality between men and women in his country and allowed women to rule the state. In the thirteenth century! And I used to think that women’s struggle for their rights was a European invention. And you are probably surprised too.

I really like books that surprise and allow you to see familiar things in a completely different way. We usually imagine the Middle Ages by looking at them through the eyes of Europeans. But now we live in a world where people are mixed in one city different countries and nationalities. And their view of history is completely different, not the same as ours. I think it’s important to learn to look at the world from their point of view, too, so that there are fewer conflicts. And this book always reminds you that other people who are not like you are also people. What is valuable to them will not necessarily be valuable to you, but you can try to understand this and not be hostile.

The book is very conveniently organized. From the “Dossier” you can find out details of the lives of rulers and other great people of different countries. And the section “Around the World in an Instant” allows you to compare how people in different parts of our planet thought about the same thing. What they considered beautiful and ugly, how they washed and generally took care of themselves, what they were sick with and how they were treated... The history of ordinary people is no less interesting than the history of their rulers. But at school they hardly talk about this. And it's a shame. Because through such an unpretentious story you will learn a lot of unexpected things. It turns out that what Hitler came up with against the Jews in the 20th century originated in the Middle Ages. And the prototype of the “Star of David”, which Jews had to sew on their clothes, was invented by Pope Innocent III. In some European countries, Jews were persecuted and destroyed, while in others, on the contrary, they were accepted. I was very surprised that the kingdoms of Poland and Hungary provided shelter to the persecuted in the 13th century, and in the 20th century it was these two countries, captured by the German Nazis, that would become the site of the mass murder of Jews. How strangely the wheel of history turns!..

This book is like a children's kaleidoscope toy. You can turn it this way and that and still get an interesting picture. The encyclopedia “The World in the 13th Century” can be read from any page and not necessarily consecutively, and you will still get an image of the medieval world. It seems to me that this book is especially suitable for children who love “interesting things”, but who do not have the time or desire to read for a long time. Short and clear texts, unusual facts, I think, will attract even non-reading teenagers. And Christelle Hainault’s bright illustrations, based on real medieval miniatures, and authentic medieval drawings can be looked at for a very long time.

Anna Semerikova, 12 years old

_________________________________

Laurence Quentin and Catherine Reiser
"The World in the 13th Century"
Artist Christelle Hainault
Translation from French by Vera Tsukanova
Publishing house “Walk into History”, 2016

Inventions before our era:
600,000 BC Fire starting device
50,000 BC Oil lamp
30,000 BC Bow and arrow - Africa
20,000 BC Needle
13,000 BC Harpoon - France
10,000 BC Fishing net - Mediterranean
7,500 BC Boat - Eastern Mediterranean
4,000 BC Cosmetics - Egypt
4,000 BC Iron ax - Mesopotamia
3,500 BC Jewelry - Mesopotamia
3,500 BC Plow - Mesopotamia
3,500 BC Cuneiform - Mesopotamia
3.200 Year of the Wheel - Mesopotamia
3,200 BC Ink - Egypt
3,000 BC Fishhook - Scandinavia
3,000 BC Sword - Mesopotamia
Around 3000 BC Skiing - Scandinavia
2.560 BC Great Pyramids of Giza, Egypt
2180 BC Tunnel under the Euphrates River - Babylon
2,000 BC Chariot - Mesopotamia
2,000 BC Ball - Egypt
2,000 BC Button with two holes - Scotland
1,500 BC Glass bottle - Egypt and Greece
1,500 BC Wooden spoon- Greece and Egypt
1,500 BC Scissors - China
1.350 BC Shower - Greece
Around 1,300 BC First moon calendar- Chang Dynasty
1,200 BC Bell - China
800 - 700 BC Iron saw - Greece
700 BC First coin - Lydia, Southwest Asia
690 BC Aqueduct - Assyria
570 BC Hanging Gardens of Babylon - Nebuchadnezzar-2
550 - 510 BC Map - Greece
Around 550 BC Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the World - Ephesus, Greece (currently the city of Selcuk in the south of Izmir Province, Turkey)
Around 500 BC Chess - India
500 BC Carpet - China
400 BC Catapult - Greece
480 BC Pontoon Bridge - Persia
460 - 377 BC Hippocrates - Greek physician, nicknamed "the father of modern medicine"
Around 435 BC Statue of Zeus, one of the seven wonders of the world - Phidias, ancient sculptor
352 BC Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the seven wonders of the world - Asia Minor, erected for Mausoleus, king of Keria
300 BC Pharos Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World - Alexandria, Egypt
282 BC Colossus of Rhodes, one of the 7 wonders of the world, a giant statue of the Greek sun god Helios
100 BC Glass blowing - Phenicia as part of the Roman Empire
85 BC Water mill - China
25 - 220 AD Saddle - China
1st century AD Spade - Rome
1st century AD Central heating system- The Roman Empire
2nd century AD First atlas - Claudius Ptolemy, Egypt

Inventions of the 1st-13th centuries AD:
Year 500 Wooden rake - Europe
650 Sheet music - Greece
Year 683 Zero - Cambodia
650 Windmill - Persia
950 Gunpowder - China
1090 Magnetic compass- China and Arabia
1180 Ship's rudder - Arabia
1200 Lupa - Robert Grosseteste, English priest
1250 - 1300 Longbow - Wales, UK
1280 Cannon - China
13th century Paper money - China

Inventions of the 15th century:
Circa 1400 Mirror - Venice, Italy
1450 Anemometer (instrument for measuring wind speed) - Leon Alberti Battista, Italian artist and architect
1455 Printing press - Johannes Gutenberg, German printer
1450s Golf - Scotland
1462 Fernao Guemez - crossed the equator

Inventions of the 16th century:
15th century The first parachute was painted by Leonardo Da Vinci
15th century Playing cards, France
Circa 15th century Piggy Bank - UK
1500 Shirt - Europe
1543 Nicolaus Copernicus - Polish astronomer, creator of the theory of the heliocentric system
Mid 16th century Violin - Lombardy
1590 Microscope - Dutch opticians, Hans Janssen and his son Zacharias
1596 Toilet - John Harington, England

17th century inventions:
1608 Telescope - Hans Lippershey, Netherlands
1609 Galileo Galilei - Italian astronomer, constructed a telescope and discovered sunspots
1609 Newspaper - Julius Sonne, Germany
1614 Logarithmic table - John Napier, Scottish mathematician
1622 Calculating machine - Wilhelm Schickard, Germany
1624 Submarine - Cornelius van Drebbel, Dutch inventor who was in the service of the British
1630 Obstetric forceps - Peter Chamberlain, English doctor
1635 Tie - Croatia
1637 Umbrella - France
1656 Pendulum clock - Christiaan Huygens, Dutch scientist
1698 Steam boiler - Thomas Savery, English engineer
1670 Megaphone - Samuel Morland, English engineer
1670 Champagne - Dom Perignon, French monk
1675 Pocket watch - Christiaan Huygens, Dutch physicist, mathematician and astronomer
1687 Isaac Newton - English physicist, formulated the law of universal gravitation
1690 - 1700 Clarinet - Johann Christopher Denner, Germany

18th century inventions:
1700 Lock and key
1714 Mercury thermometer- Gabriel D. Fahrenheit, German physicist
1718 Machine Gun - James Puckle, England
1720 Grand Piano - Bartolomeo Cristofori, Italy
1731 Octant - John Hadley - (England) and Thomas Godfrey (USA)
1731 Sextant - John Hadley, England
1735 Sea boat - John Harrison, England
1736 Anders Celsius - Swedish astronomer, developed a centigrade thermometer scale
1752 Eraser - “Magellan”, Portugal
1752 Lightning Rod - Benjamin Franklin, inventor and statesman
1760 Roller skates - Joseph Merlin, Belgian musician
1762 Sandwich - John Montagu, fourth Earl of Sandwich, English aristocrat
1767 Puzzle - John Spilsbury, English teacher
1770 Porcelain teeth - Alexis Duchateau, French pharmacist
1779 First Foundry Bridge - Bridge over the River Severn, UK1
1783 Louis Lenorand - the first person to make a parachute jump, France
1783 Balloon- brothers Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, French inventors
1784 Bifocal lenses - Benjamin Franklin, inventor and statesman
1791 Theodolite, a portable goniometer instrument - Jesse Ramsden
1792 Ambulance - Dominique Larrey, French surgeon

19th century inventions:
Circa 1800 Barometer - Luke Howard, founder of modern meteorology, UK
1800 The first source of chemical current (voltaic column) - Alessandro Volta, Italian physicist
1803 Steam locomotive - Richard Trevithick, English engineer
1807 Gaslamp - National Lighting and Heating Company, UK
1811 Preservation of food - Nicholas Appert, France
1814 School Board - James Pillans, Scottish teacher
1815 Miner's Lantern - Humphrey Davy, English chemist
1816 Stethoscope - René Laeneck, French physicist
1818 Revolver - Artemis Wheeler and Elisha Cooler, American inventors
1819 Diving suit - Augustus Siebe, German mechanic
1819 Chocolate - Francois-Louis Cahier, Switzerland
1821 Electric motor - Michael Faraday, English physicist and chemist
1823 Crying Dolls - Johann Maelzel, Belgium
1823 Rubberized fabric - Charles Macintosh, Scottish chemist
1825 Aluminum - Hans Oersted, Danish physicist
1827 Matches - John Walker, English chemist and apothecary
1829 Tractor - Case Company
1829 Accordion - Cyrillus Demian, Austria
1830 Lawn Mower - Edwin Beard Budding, England
1831 Dynamo and transformer - Michael Faraday, English physicist and chemist
1837 Telegraph - William Cook and Charles Wheatstone, Boitan inventors
1838 Harvester - John Hescall and Hiram Moore, USA
1838 - 1842 Charles Wilkes - American explorer of the coast of Antarctica
1839 Bicycle - Carkpatrick Macmillan, Scotland
1839 Steam Press - James Nesmith, England
1839 Rubber vulcanization process - Charles Nelson Gudier, American inventor
1840 Postage stamp - James Chalmer, Scottish essayist
1841 Saxophone - Anthony Sax, Belgium Saxophone - Adolphe Sax (1814, November 06 - 1894, February 07), Belgium
1844 Morse code - Samuel Morse, American artist and inventor
1844 Anaesthesia - Horace Wells, American dentist
1846 Sewing machine- Elias Howe, American inventor
1847 Aneroid Barometer - Lucien Vidy, France
1849 - 1896 Years of life of Otto Lilienthal - German engineer - first aeronaut
1849 Charles Rowley (Great Britain) Safety pin - Walter Hunt (USA) and
1850 Acoustic guitar - Antonio de Torres
1852 Post Box - Guernsey, UK
1854 Paraffin lamp - Abraham Gesner (USA) and James Young (England)
1854 Elevator - Eli Otis, American inventor
1854 Watermill - Isle of Man, UK
1856 - 1943 Nikola Tesla - American of Croatian origin, electrician and inventor in the field of radio engineering
1856 First synthetic paint - William Perkin
1857 Toilet paper- Joseph K. Gayetti, USA
1859 Charles Darwin - English naturalist, author of the theory of evolution
1860 Guillotine Knife - Henry Clayton
1861 Postcard - John P. Charlton, USA
1861 Color photograph - James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist
1862 First underground road - London, UK
1863 Drill - George Harrington, England
1866 Torpedo - Robert Whitehead
1867 Barbed Wire - Lucien Smith (USA)
1867 Baby food - Gentry Nestlé, Swiss chemist
1867 Dynamite - Alfred Nobel, Swedish engineer
1868 - 1874 Gustav Nachtigal - German explorer of Central Sahara
1868 Ferdinad Richtofer - German geographer, explorer of China
1868 Hydropower - Aristide Berger - French engineer
1869 Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - Russian chemist, developed the periodic table of chemical elements
1860s Louis Pasteur - French chemist, developed the pasteurization process
1874 Jeans - Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis, USA
1875 System of selling goods at one price - Melville Stone (USA)
1876 ​​Telephone - Alexander Graham Bell, American physicist born in Scotland
1877 Phonograph - Thomas Edison, American inventor
1879 Light bulb - Thomas Edison. The discovery was based on the patent of the English scientist Joseph Swan
1879 Tram, Germany
1879 Soap - Procter and Gamble
1880 Ventilation system- Robert Boyle, British chemist and physicist
1880 Seismograph - John Milne, English scientist
1881 Trolleybus - Werner von Siemens, German electrical engineer
1882 Electric iron - Henry W. Seely, USA
1882 Robert Koch - German bacteriologist, discovered the causative agents of cholera and tuberculosis
1885 Internal combustion engine - Gottlieb Daimler, German engineer
1885 First car - Karl Benz, German mechanical engineer
1887 Rubber Tire - John Dunlop, Irish veterinarian
1888 Gramophone - Emil Berliner, German-American
1888 Fridtjof Nansen - Norwegian scientist and statesman, explored the Arctic and Greenland
1890 Hand Lantern - Conrad Hubert, Russian-American
1890 Crossword - G. Airoldi, Italy
1890 - 1934 Sven Andres Hedin - Swedish explorer of Central Asia
1891 Basketball - James A. Naismith, USA
1891 Electric kettle - Carpenter Electric Company, USA
1891 Electric stove- Carpenter Company, USA
1892 Diesel engine - Rudolf Diesel, German mechanical engineer
1893 Zipper - Whitcomb Judson, USA
1893 Industrial air filter, USA
1895 X-rays - Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, German physicist
1895 Cinema - brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière, French entrepreneurs
1895 Popov Alexander Stepanovich - Russian inventor, invented radio
1899 Pneumatic mail - “Brooklyn”, USA
1899 Aspirin - Felix Hoffmann and Hermann Dreser, German chemists

20th century inventions:
1900 Paper clips - Johann Vaaler, Norway
1900 Sound cinema - Leon Gaumont, France
1900 Airship - Ferdinand von Zeppelin - German airship designer
1901 Safety razor - King Kemle Gillette, American merchant
1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright - American engineers who made the first airplane flight
1903 Colored crayons - Crayola, USA
1904 Diode - John Ambrose Fleming, British electrical engineer
1906 Automatic piano - Automatic Machinery and Tool Company, USA
1906 Fountain pen - Slavoljub Penkala, Serbian inventor
1907 Washing machine- Alva J. Fisher
1908 Assembly line - Henry Ford, American engineer
1908 Geiger counter - German physicist Hans Geiger and W. Müller invented a device for detecting and measuring radioactivity
1909 Louis Bleriot - French engineer, flew over the English Channel
1909 Robert Edwin Peary - American explorer who first reached the North Pole
1910 Alfred Wegener - German geophysicist, author of the theory of continental drift
1910 Mixer - George Smith and Fred Osius, USA
1911 Roald Amundsen - Norwegian explorer, first to reach the South Pole
1912 Robert Falcon Scott - British military officer, second to reach the South Pole
1912 Reflector - Belling Co., USA
1913 Autopilot - Elmer Speary (USA)
1915 Gas mask - Fritz Haber, German chemist
1915 Cardboard milk cartons - Van Wormer - USA
1915 Heat-resistant glassware - Pyrex Corning Glass Works, USA
1916 Microphone - USA
1916 Tank - William Tritton, British designer
1917 Electric Christmas tree lights - Albert Sadakka, Spanish American
1917 Shock Therapy - UK
1920 Hairdryer - Racine Universal Motor Company, USA
1921 Albert Einstein - American physicist, originally from Germany, formulated the theory of relativity
1921 Lie Detector - John A. Larsen (USA)
1921 Toaster - Charles Straight (USA)
1924 Band-Aid - Josephine Dixon, USA
1926 Black and white television - John Logie Baird, Scottish inventor
1927 Ventilator - Philip Drinker, American medical researcher
1928 Penicillin is the first antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming, a Scottish bacteriologist.
1928 Chewing gum - Walter E. Diemer, USA
1929 Yo-Yo - Pedro Flores, Philippines
1930 Multi-storey car park - Paris, France 1930 Electronic clock - Penwood Numecron
1930 Duct Tape - Richard Drew, USA
1930 Frozen Convenience Foods - Clarence Birsay, USA
Circa 1930 Bra
1932 Parking lot meter - Carlton Magee, American inventor
1932 Electric guitar - Adolphus Rickenbucket, USA
1933 - 1935 Radar - Rudolf Kühnhold and Robert Watson-Watt
1934 Nylon stockings - Wallace Hume Carothers, American chemist
1936 Food baskets and carts - Sylvan Goldman and Fred Young, USA
1938 Copier - Chester Carson, American lawyer, contributed to the development of xerography
1938 Ball pen- Laszlo Biro
1939 DDT - Paul Muller and Weismann - Switzerland
1940 Mobile phone - Bell Telephone Laboratories, USA
1943 Scuba - Jacques-Yves Cousteau, French oceanographer
1946 Electronic computer - John Presper Eckert and John Moakley, USA
1946 Microwave - Percy LeBaron Spencer, USA
1948 Player - CBS Corporation, USA
1949, January 10 The release of vinyl records begins, RCA - 45 rpm

The Baptism of Rus' [Paganism and Christianity. Christening of the Empire. Constantine the Great - Dmitry Donskoy. Battle of Kulikovo in the Bible. Sergius of Radonezh - Gleb Vladimirovich Nosovsky

6. GLASSES WERE INVENTED IN THE 13TH CENTURY. CONSEQUENTLY, ANCIENT IMAGES OF “ANTIQUE” PEOPLE WITH GLASSES DATED NO EARLIER THAN THE 13TH CENTURY AND SHOW US, MOST LIKELY, CHARACTERS OF THE 13th–17th CENTURIES

From the history of technology it is known that glasses were invented in the 13th century. It is believed, however, that “in the first half of the 11th century, the Arab scientist Ibn al-Haytham described a magnifying lens, but the East was unable to draw any practical conclusions from his theoretical developments,” p. 14. In the West, “the great scientist and thinker Roger Bacon was the first to try to make eye lenses in 1267... But early experiments ended in failure. Nevertheless, information about the great discovery instantly spread throughout the Christian world: the increasing power of “crystalline stones” becomes a literary metaphor; on the portal of one church in Spain, SAINT JEROME, WHO LIVED SEVEN CENTURIES BEFORE THE INVENTION, IS DEPICTED WITH SUCH OPTICAL STONES!” , With. 37. Combined with what we already know about chronology, it follows that St. Jerome actually lived no earlier than the 13th century. Just real story technology came into open contradiction here with the erroneous Scaligerian version.

“But still, the first real glasses were born at the very end of the 13th century in Northern Italy. It is unknown who owns the honor of making them. It was believed that this was Salvinio degli Armati, buried in the Cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore in Florence; at least that's what it says on his grave. However, recent research has proven that the epitaph is a fake.

Be that as it may, in 1300 the Great Council of the Venetian Republic adopted the first statute regulating the production of “reading stones”. And in 1305, the Dominican Giordano de Rivalto from Pisa already mentioned “eyeglasses for reading.” In general, the 14th century became the time of widespread use of glasses in the form of a monocle and lorgnette (see Fig. 5.41 and Fig. 5.42 - Author). And the EARLIEST physical surviving specimen dates back to the middle of this century, it was found under the choir of the Windhausen monastery in Lower Saxony. At this time, the bow for the nose was invented: in a fresco of 1352 from the monastery of San Nicolo in Trevisio, two cardinals are depicted side by side: Nicholas of Rouen with a monocle, and Hugo of Provence with pince-nez. At that time there were only glasses for far-sighted people, GLASSES FOR MYOPIA APPEARED ONLY A CENTURY LATER. In the fifteenth century, wire bows were also invented to tuck behind the ears. Thus (in the 15th century - Author) glasses were practically acquired modern look- these depict St. Anna in a painting from 1470 from the Amsterdam Museum", p. 37.

Rice. 5.41 Antique glasses in the form of a lorgnette. Taken from, p. 37.

Rice. 5.42 Antique glasses in the form of a monocle. Taken from, p. 36.

In Fig. 5.43 shows a fragment of an altar allegedly from 1404 in Bad Wildungen with an image of Conrad von Sest wearing glasses. In Fig. 5.44 shows the 1690 lithograph “Seller of Glasses”. In Fig. 5.45 we see in Raphael’s painting Pope Leo X with glasses (supposedly the beginning of the 16th century).

Rice. 5.43 Konrad von Zest with glasses. Fragment of an altar in Bad Wildungen supposedly from 1404. Taken from, p. 36, ill. 2.

Rice. 5.44 “Glasses seller.” Antique lithograph from 1690. Taken from, p. 37.

Rice. 5.45 Pope Leo X with glasses. Painting by Raphael. Allegedly 1513–1519. Taken from, p. 37, ill. 5.

So, glasses were invented no earlier than the 13th century, and came into widespread use only in the 14th century. Glasses for myopia appeared even later - only in the 15th century, see fig. 5.46.

Rice. 5.46 “In the painting “Canon van der Paele’s Madonna” (1436), painted by Jan Van Eyck, there is perhaps the first image in the history of art of glasses with curved lenses for the nearsighted, and glasses for the farsighted appeared a century earlier” Taken from, with . 195.

It follows that those “ancient” characters who are depicted wearing glasses most likely lived no earlier than the 13th century. The above apparently applies to the bespectacled evangelist depicted in Fig. 5.47, as well as to the Apostle Peter reading a book through glasses, see fig. 5.48. And also to the biblical Jacob, depicted in an ancient miniature from the “World Chronicle” by Hartmann Schedel, see fig. 5.49. This conclusion is consistent with the results of the new chronology, according to which these characters actually lived no earlier than the 12th century AD. e. See, for example, our book “Tsar of the Slavs”.

Rice. 5.47 "Evangelist". Illustration from a French Bible purportedly from 1380. The evangelist wears glasses. Taken from, p. 36, ill. 1.

Rice. 5.48 Apostle Peter. Church of St. Jacob in Rothenburg. Allegedly 1466. Peter reads a book with glasses. Taken from, p. 36, ill. 3.

Rice. 5.49 Biblical Jacob with glasses in his hands. From Schedel's "World Chronicle", supposedly 1493. Taken from, sheet LXXXVIII, verso.

From the book Reconstruction of World History [text only] author

Appendix 1. Kings-Khans of the Russian-Horde Great = “Mongol” empire of the XIII-XVI centuries N. E. and their reflection-Emperors of the Habsburgs of the XIII-XVI centuries 1. Rome-Vizanty of the XI-XV centuries and the Great = “Mongolian” Empire XIV –XVI CENTURIES ARE THE ORIGINALS OF ALL “ANCIENT KINGDOMS” IN OUR

From the book Reconstruction of World History [text only] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

Appendix 3. HOW THE REAL HISTORY OF THE XIII-XVI CENTURIES WAS REFLECTED IN “ANTIQUE” SOURCES 1. “ROMAN HISTORY” OF TITUS LIBY A brief reconstruction scheme is shown in Fig. P3.1 and Fig. P3.2. Let us recall that “Roman History” by Titus Livy is the most famous primary source on history

From the book Beginning Horde Rus'. After Christ. The Trojan War. Founding of Rome. author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

8. Ancient images of human bodies with depictions of muscles date back no earlier than the 16th century. In Fig. 6.78 shows an ancient engraving of “Gladiators” supposedly from the 15th century, made by Antonio Pollaiuolo. As we already noted in KhRON1, chapter 1:6, we were accustomed to the idea that the famous gladiatorial

From the book Book 1. New chronology of Rus' [Russian Chronicles. "Mongol-Tatar" conquest. Battle of Kulikovo. Ivan groznyj. Razin. Pugachev. The defeat of Tobolsk and author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

12.5. Birch bark letters were used in “ancient” Rome. Therefore, they were written, most likely, no earlier than the 14th century. After all that has been said, the fact that birch bark letters were USED IN ALLEGEDLY ANCIENT ROME takes on a completely different meaning. As we now understand,

From the book The Founding of Rome. The beginning of Horde Rus'. After Christ. Trojan War author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

6. Ancient images of human bodies with depictions of muscles date back no earlier than the 16th century. In Fig. 6.64 shows an ancient engraving “Gladiators” supposedly from the 15th century. As noted by A.T. Fomenko in [KhRON1], ch. 1:6, we have been taught to believe that the famous gladiator fights took place

From the book Intellectuals in the Middle Ages by Le Goff Jacques

PART II. XIII century. MATURITY AND ITS PROBLEMS Outlines of the 13th century The 13th century is the age of universities because it is the age of corporations. In every city where there is some kind of craft that unites a significant number of people engaged in it, artisans organize themselves to protect

From the book The Trojan War in the Middle Ages. Analysis of responses to our research [with illustrations] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

27. “Ancient” Second Roman Empire in the 10th–13th centuries AD. e. and in the XIII–XVII centuries AD. 3 In addition to the correspondence described above, the Second Empire and the Holy Empire of the 10th - 13th centuries each contained three major rulers at their very beginning. Actually, both empires being compared begin with them.

author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

3. The works attributed today to the famous artist allegedly of the 15th–16th centuries, Albrecht Dürer, were most likely created a century later - in the 17th century. Dürer’s famous “Arch of Glory of Emperor Maximilian I” In the book “The Mystery of Russian History”, ch. 1:5.3, we have already substantiated

From the book Book 1. Empire [Slavic conquest of the world. Europe. China. Japan. Rus' as a medieval metropolis of the Great Empire] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

4. The oldest surviving globe - supposedly Martin Behaim's globe of 1492 - was most likely made much later. Not earlier than the 16th–17th centuries. We talk about the globe of Martin Behaim (Behaims) in the book “The Exploration of America by Russia-Horde”, ch. 6:7. Let us remind you that he is considered the OLDEST

From the book Book 1. Western myth [“Ancient” Rome and the “German” Habsburgs are reflections of the Russian-Horde history of the 14th–17th centuries. The legacy of the Great Empire in cult author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

Chapter 3 The Tsar-Khans of the Russian-Horde Empire of the XIII-XVI centuries were reflected in Western chronicles as the Habsburg Emperors of the XIII-XVI centuries 1. Vasily I was reflected in Western chronicles as “Rudolph I” a. RUSSIAN-HORDE EMPIRE. VASILY I OF KOSTROMA 1272–1277, reigned for 5 years. Start

author Semenov Vladimir Ivanovich

6. HELMETS XI–XIII centuries HELMETS XI–XIII cc. Shelom (helmet) is a military headdress with a high bell-shaped crown and a long spire (“top”). In Rus', helmets of domed and spheroconic shapes were common. At the top, helmets often ended with a sleeve, which sometimes

From the book Russian armor of the X-XVII centuries author Semenov Vladimir Ivanovich

9. CHAIN ​​MAIL XII-XIII centuries HAUBERK XII-XIII cc. Since the end of the 12th century, the appearance of chain mail has changed. Chain mail appeared with long sleeves, knee length, with chain mail stockings - “nagavits”. Now chain mail began to be made not from round, but from flat rings. Such rings were made from

From the book Russian armor of the X-XVII centuries author Semenov Vladimir Ivanovich

11. HELMET WITH SEMI-VISOR AND “BARMITSA” MAIL XII–XIII cc. At the end of the 12th–13th centuries, in connection with the pan-European tendency to make defensive armor heavier, helmets appeared in Rus', equipped with a face mask, that is, a visor that protected the warrior’s face from both

From the book Russian armor of the X-XVII centuries author Semenov Vladimir Ivanovich

16. ARMOR XIII–XIV centuries ARMOR XIII–XIV cc. Since the 14th century in Rus' there have been shells in which they mix different types armor The armor could be scaly on the hem and plate (or ringed) on the chest and back. The sleeves and hem of the chain mail were trimmed long

author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

6. The works attributed today to the famous artist allegedly of the 15th–16th centuries Albrecht Durer were created, most likely, a century later - in the 17th century. In the book [IMP], KhRON4, ch. 13:5, we have already substantiated the hypothesis that the famous artist Albrecht Durer most likely lived not in the 15th–16th

From the book Joan of Arc, Samson and Russian History author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

7. The oldest surviving globe - allegedly the globe of Martin Behaim of 1492 - was most likely made much later, no earlier than the 16th–17th centuries. We talked about the globe of Martin Behaim (Behaims) in [BR], KhRON6, ch. 14:7. Let us remember that it is considered the OLDEST surviving globe.

// 6th century (Northern Italy, Rhine Valley)

This agricultural tool spread along with the development of northern European lands.

The lightweight wooden plow traditionally used in the Mediterranean could not cope with the heavier, wet soils of the north. The heavy model of the plow was upholstered with such a valuable metal as iron in the early Middle Ages. The profession of a blacksmith at that time was on par with a jeweler, so this technological innovation was incredibly expensive. That is why a heavy plow was usually bought for several families at once.

2. Three-field farming system

// 9th century (Western Europe)

The system of land use, in which each of the three parts of the arable land was sown in turn with winter crops, spring crops or left fallow, is first mentioned in the Carolingian chronicle.

For a long time, people simply abandoned impoverished areas of land and cleared new territory, setting off massive forest fires to do this. The transition to a three-field system led to a hitherto unprecedented phenomenon - the appearance of excess food. They began to sell it to those involved in the craft. Spreading new system agriculture was a necessary prerequisite for the emergence of cities. True, the three-field land also had its costs: when the land was resting, it could be mistaken for ownerless and seized by an enterprising neighbor. The number of “land hearings” at this time was off the charts.

3. Rigid clamp

// 10th century (France, England)

A special type of harness that made it possible to increase the draft power of the animal four times.

Until the 10th century, the main animal on the farm was an unpretentious ox, and not an expensive to maintain (oats were very expensive) and often sick horse. But when the crop area increased, a more mobile animal was needed. A new type of harness made it possible to redistribute the load from the trachea to the horse's chest, and now in a day it could plow as much as 3-4 oxen.

4. Hygrometer made of wool

// X5th century (Italy)

A device that allows you to measure air humidity was invented by Nicholas of Cusa in 1440.

Outstanding thinker and scientist traded sheep wool. He noticed that on rainy days wool weighs much heavier, and began using stones that do not absorb moisture to accurately measure weight. This discovery later led to the creation simple mechanism based on scales: on one side they placed a material like cotton wool, on the other - a non-absorbent substance like wax. When the air was dry, the plumb line remained vertical. When cotton wool absorbed moisture from the air, it became heavier than wax.

5. Mechanical watches

// XIII century (Central Europe)

They were ten-meter towers topped with a dial with a single hand that indicated the hours.

The first mechanical clock was the most complex medieval mechanism, consisting of approximately 2,000 parts. To correct the movement of a 200-kilogram weight, watchmakers invented bilians - regulators of the movement of the main ratchet wheel, and then a spindle device. All this significantly increased the accuracy of the move. The oldest surviving mechanical clock (1386) is located in England, at Salisbury Cathedral. And in French Rouen, a clock from 1389 still shows the correct time.

6. Music notation

// 11th century (Italy)

Notes in the form of squares located on four lines were invented by the Italian monk Guido d'Arezzo.

Guido led an ensemble of boys who began their rehearsal every day with a hymn to St. John. The boys were out of tune so shamelessly that the monk decided to clearly show how the sound rises and falls. And he laid the foundation for modern solfeggio. Today, the musical staff consists of five lines, but the very principle of notation and the name of the notes D, E, F, G, A have not changed since then.

7. Universities

// 11th century (Italy)

The first European university opened in Bologna in 1088.

The first scientific works, even in secular universities, bore titles like “Why did Adam in Paradise eat an apple and not a pear?” or “How many angels can fit on the head of a needle?” Gradually, a division into faculties took shape: legal, medical, theological, and philosophical. The students were, as a rule, adults and even old people who came here not so much to study as to exchange experiences. Universities were extremely popular: about 10 thousand students studied in Bologna, so many lectures had to be given in the open air.

8. Pharmacies

// XI–XIII century (Spain, Italy)

In 1224, the German king Frederick II Staufen issued a decree prohibiting doctors from making medicines and pharmacists from treating.

The first pharmacies were at first little different from a grocery store. The impetus for the development of pharmaceuticals was given by the division into doctor and pharmacist introduced by the German monarch. For example, only from a pharmacist could one buy such useful drugs as mosquito oil, wolf hair ashes and theriac, a universal antidote. It is worth noting that the medicine of that time was experimental, so all recipes began with the optimistic Cum Deo! ("With God blessing!").

9. Stained glass

// 12th century (Germany)

The first official instructions for the production of colored transparent glass were compiled by the monk Theophilus.

The creators of stained glass windows were the most respected people in the city, because they conveyed the beauty and grandeur of the otherworldly world. A special tax was even collected for their needs. Craftsmen boiled river sand, flux, lime and potash, and added metal oxides to create color. Interestingly, almost all the glass, except green and blue, over time suffered severe corrosion and turned dirty brown. The oldest surviving example of stained glass art is considered to be the head of Christ in Weissembourg Abbey in Alsace (Germany).

10. Mirror

// XIII century (Holland, Venetian Republic)

The first mention of glass mirrors is found in the famous work on optics Perspectiva communis, written by the Archbishop of Canterbury John Peckham in the second half of the 13th century.

Medieval craftsmen came up with the idea of ​​covering glass with a thin layer of lead-antimony alloy - the result was mirrors similar to modern ones. Many people think that mass production of mirrors began in Venice. However, the Flemings and Dutch were the first. Flemish mirrors can be seen in the paintings of Jan van Eyck. They were cut from hollow glass balls, into which molten lead was poured. The alloy of lead and antimony quickly faded in air, and the convex surface gave a noticeably distorted image. A century later, the title of master glassmakers passed to Venice on the island of Murano, where sheet glass was invented.

11. Kulevrina

// XV century (England, France)

The ancestor of the modern cannon, it penetrated knightly armor at a distance of 25–30 m.

Shooting such a weapon was a rather dubious pleasure. To fire a shot, one person had to hold the fuse and the other had to aim the barrel at the target. The culverin weighed from 5 to 28 kg. If it rained or snowed, the war had to be stopped because the fuse would not burn. In the 16th century it was supplanted by the arquebus.

12. Quarantine

// XIV century (Venetian Republic)

In 1377, in the port of the Venetian city of Ragusa (present-day Dubrovnik), ships returning from “plague countries” were detained for 40 days for the first time.

These measures caused fierce controversy, since, from the point of view of contemporaries, they had no scientific basis. The disease, which wiped out about a quarter of the entire population, was treated with cauterization, lizard skins and dried herbs - it was believed that it was transmitted by “plague animals” invisible to the eye, which were carried along with the smell. Quarantine led to mass famine in Europe, but stopped the spread of the disease. Foreign merchants who wanted to challenge the preventive measures were burned. The Venetian quarantine system served as the basis for the organization of modern sanitary service.

13. Blast furnace

// X4th century (Switzerland, Sweden, France)

It was a tower 4.5 m high and 1.8 m in diameter. Ore and coal with a high carbon content were placed there, and cast iron was obtained.

Cast iron was invented almost by accident, increasing the size of the forge and the blowing force. The new substance was initially considered a defect and was called “pig iron.” True, they soon noticed that it fills molds well and high-quality castings can be obtained from it; before that, iron was only forged. The blast furnace became the most effective invention of the Middle Ages. It made it possible to obtain 1.6 tons of product per day, while 8 kg came out of a conventional melting furnace during this time.

14. Distillation apparatus

// XIV (Italy)

The alchemical monk Valentius is credited with radically improving the ancient moonshine still, allowing for double distillation.

Distillation, as well as fermentation, were favorite pastimes of medieval alchemists who were trying to find the philosopher's stone. According to one version, this is how Valentius obtained alcohol from wine. He called the liquid formed during the experiment the living water aqua vitae. Soon it began to be sold in pharmacies as a remedy for bad breath, colds and moodiness.

15. First chemical production

// XIV century(Germany, France, England)

In the 1300s, the first factories for the production of sulfuric, hydrochloric and nitric acid appeared in various places in Europe. They began to mine sulfur and saltpeter.

Experiments with chemicals from the laboratories of alchemists they moved to the laboratories of chemists - scientists who realized the futility of trying to transform one substance into another and paid attention to the needs of the time. With the beginning of gunpowder production, saltpeter acquired particular importance - it was scraped off the walls of cowsheds. Cowsheds in the Middle Ages were made from animal waste and earth mixed with lime, clay and straw. Over time, white deposits of saltpeter, potassium nitrate, formed as a result of the decomposition of organic matter by bacteria, appeared on the walls. Swedish peasants, for example, paid part of the quitrent in saltpeter. The invention of gunpowder itself in Europe is credited to the German monk Berthold Schwartz (circa 1330).

16. Glasses

// XIII century (England)

The famous medieval scientist Roger Bacon is considered the benefactor of all bespectacled people. In 1268 he wrote about the use of lenses for optical purposes.

Although Bacon himself is often depicted wearing glasses, most likely, this invention gained popularity only a hundred years later, when it came to continental Europe. The first glasses were convex lenses for farsighted people held together with a bow. Glasses that corrected myopia were first recorded in Raphael's 1517 portrait of Pope Leo X.

17. Toilet

// XVI century (England)

The first flush barrel device was given by John Harrington to his godmother, Queen Elizabeth I of England.

Nobleman Harrington was a gifted writer and inventor, and, as was often the case with discoveries, his toilet was far ahead of its time. The new product, named by Harrington after the ancient Greek hero Ajax, did not take root because there was no running water in England at that time, and quite quickly the device began to stink terribly. The finest hour of toilets came only in the 19th century.

18. Printing press

// 15th century (Germany)

Jeweler Johannes Gutenberg in 1445 developed the final press with typesetting metal characters, a long lever and a wooden screw that could print 250 pages per hour.

Quite quickly, the “secret of artificial writing,” as stated in the documents, spread throughout Europe. Over fifty years, 40 thousand publications were printed with a circulation of over 10 million copies. Gutenberg's role is known from documents from property courts. It repeatedly mentions an invention that changed the course of history in Europe.

19. Looms

// XIV century (England)

A new type of horizontal looms with a block system greatly facilitated and speeded up the work of weavers.

More primitive vertical looms did an excellent job with small amounts of raw materials from flax, nettles, hemp and wool. But production volumes grew, and the previous equipment could not keep up with them.

20. Foot lathes

// XIV century (Germany)

The mechanism included a pedal, crank and connecting rod. The operating principle of the foot drive of this machine is easy to understand by imagining a foot sewing machine.

Devices with a foot pedal freed up the hands of craftsmen, which significantly speeded up the production of parts. Cars were very rare, so the profession of a turner was considered one of the most prestigious. Some emperors of those years kept lathes in their castles in order to hone their skills in their spare time.

21. Gothic architecture

// 12th century (Western Europe)

The invention of the Gothic vault - a stable frame system in which cross-rib lancet vaults and arches play a constructive role - made it possible to create a fundamentally new type buildings.

The word “Gothic” itself was a dirty word for a long time, as it was associated with the Goths, the barbarian tribes that destroyed the great Rome. Nevertheless, the term gradually began to be correlated with a new direction, primarily in architecture. Openwork buildings, fantastic for their time, appeared, which were supposed to remind of man’s aspiration to the sky.

22. Tidal mills

// VII1st century (Northern Ireland)

In 787, mills using tidal power appeared in Northern Ireland.

Over time, the water wheel became a full-fledged participant in a number of vital technologies - an engine in fulling workshops, lathes and forges, in sawmills and ore crushers.

23. Buttonhole

// 13th century (Germany)

Slits appeared on tight-fitting clothes where a button could be inserted.

For a long time, people tied the ends of their clothes in knots or used lacing, special ties and pins made from plant thorns, bone and other materials. The buttons themselves have been used as decoration for centuries. Europeans liked the appearance of a reliable fastening system so much that soon, in order to put on a suit, a noble person had to fasten about a hundred buttons.

on "Schrodinger's Cat"